English-speaking West African Theater The countries of Ghana, Nigeria and Sierra Leone (and to a lesser extent Gambia), in addition to the English-speaking areas of Cameroon, have produced a rich theater since their political independence. But, in order to understand them, one must banish all notions of theatre as it is thought of in the Euro-American contextsomething dependent on text, on halls, on technology and on box-office returns. (Throughout the article, dates in parentheses are dates of publication rather than first performance, except where noted.). In the 1970s de Graft moved to teach in East Africa, where he wrote and produced his play Muntu (1975). In Africa there is a diversity of theatrical traditions, in which almost all the time, elements of oral and mythological tradition are incorporated, dance, music, dialogue, masks and costumes are part of the same performance, and there is no separation between the stage and the audience. Corrections? A tree might serve as a stand for props and costumes, as well as a backdrop. Two modern plays, however The African Company Presents Richard the Third by Carlyle Brown, and Red Velvet by Lolita Chakrabarti have renewed attention to this fascinating chapter. Intended as a discourse with supernatural forcesin order to channel them, control them, appease them or honor themand to ensure the survival and equilibrium of the community, rituals were and still are shields defending the community against evil forces. See also African music and mask. This work is licensed under theCreative Commons Attribution International License CC BY-NC-ND 4.0. Medieval Theatre | Plays, Costumes & Staging, Production Concept in Theater: Definition, Function & Example. African theatre, effectively, the theatre of Africa south of the Sahara that emerged in the postcolonial erathat is to say, from the mid-20th century onward. This is the origin of the qualifying adjectives francophone, anglophone and lusophone, used in various essays on post-colonial Africa. He was the star of a . The political situation of independence was reflected in the theater, in which dramas by African authors multiplied, inserting local traditions into typical European structures. Interpreting Context in a Monologue: Strategies & Examples, East & Southeast Asian Theatre: History & Overview. Clearly, such a brief summary shows African theatrical art before contact with the outside world to be rich and complex. Who are the representatives of African theater? There are masters of ceremonies as well as actions that take place according to an agreed scenario which itself respects certain ritual prescriptions. Soyinkas main weapon was satire, from The Trials of Brother Jero (first performed 1960, published 1963) to King Baabu, which was loosely based on Alfred Jarrys farcical Ubu Roi. This musical ultimately made space for Black South Africans to tell their own stories and legitimized Black South African theatre makers. Her play The Sacrifice of Kreli (1976) was the first to be published by a black woman during Apartheid, and the first in a long line of plays dealing with race relations, friendship among township women, urban life and the rise of drugs among young people. Such activities are performed in ritual ceremonies by recreating and representing (as Sngalese poet and philosopher Lopold Sdar Snghor has pointed out) a mythic temporal dimension through artistic techniques utilizing masks, songs, poetry and dance; in short, through theatre. All other trademarks and copyrights are the property of their respective owners. In the late 1930s, Black community theatres began to appear, revealing talents such as those of Ossie Davis and Ruby Dee. Rotimi had formal training in playwriting at Boston and Yale universities, and that training is reflected in his workmanship, but he created a very personal style of theatre, richly inventive and experimental. This article aims to sketch the broadest patterns of work and highlight some landmarks in dealing with the extensive continentwide theatrical activity. The mask, therefore, is an emblem, a sign which is not only used to erase the personality of the wearer, but which also identifies the wearer with an ancestor or a supernatural being. These stories passed down communal histories and myths and to share important morals. Elaborate rituals include ornate costumes, music, dancing, and storytelling. Similarly, the often violent struggle for independence in Kenya and elsewhere produced powerful protest theater, and the process of independence was brought into drama increasingly articulated in the struggle against what was seen as neocolonial rule. Since independence in 1980, Zimbabwe has become a thriving center of pan-African experimentation, exchange and collaboration. Some hail from East Africa, including: And some hail from Southern Africa, including: To unlock this lesson you must be a Study.com Member. Early descriptions of African performances by foreignersfirst by Arabs from the eleventh century (a period before colonization), then by Europeans during the colonial periodinvariably missed the spiritual dimension spoken of here. A vibrant tradition of popular theatre (such as the Yoruba opera) was also a resource that the literary playwright could be inspired by and draw upon. At the time of colonial rule in Africa, numerous indigenous art forms were eliminated by Western missionaries because they sought to spread the Christian message through biblical dramas and sacred representations, which were quickly adopted by Africans, adapting them to their own traditions. Another important Ghanaian playwright is Mohammed Ben-Abdallah. In their scheme of things theatre was taken for granted. With those two plays Aidoo established herself as a major presence in African theatre. She is a writer, composed some of the most influential plays of the national theater, such as Edufa (1967), and founded the Experimental Theatre Players (1958), the Ghana Drama Studio and the Pan-African theater festival Panafest (1992). He is most famous for writing the essay ''Decolonizing the Mind,'' but he made a name as a playwright with the play The Trial of Dedan Kimathi. An important initiative was the creation of Krio language drama, particularly through the work of the writers linguist Thomas Decker, who in the 1960s translated Julius Caesar and As You Like It into the language widely spoken in the country. Collaboration among so many types of personnel . Slowly, Africa began to withdraw from itself. It is the functioning of society itself which most directly dictates artistic expression in Africa, whose theatre is rooted in myths, rites and folk celebrations, which externalize the beliefs, passions and concepts that preoccupy any given group. His Land of a Million Magicians (1993), inspired by Bertolt Brechts The Good Woman of Setzuan (1943), is a work of considerable theatrical scale and dramatic power. Its harder to trace the influence of William Brown.. Women were the storytellers, the humour-artisans, the. For the price of 25 cents or, for a nicer seat, a hefty 50 cents the African Theater entertained hundreds of Black New Yorkers with both classic and original work, alongside operas and ballets. The troupe performed plays by Shakespeare and plays written by Brown, several of which were anti-colonization and anti-slavery.Its leading actor was James Hewlett.. and Tahinta (both 1968). The fact is that early Africans never invented a generic term to designate these representations. Even though the African Theater grew so popular that white audiences began attending as well, Brown faced an uphill battle for the companys entire existence. Shakespeare's Richard III arrived on a New York City stage 200 years ago this month. Repetition of the language, rhythm and gesture are important characteristics of African oral storytelling (Matateyou 1997). A drawing of James Hewlett in the title role of Richard III.CreditHoughton Library, Harvard University, via Wiki Commons. The rich cultural heritage of the nation, particularly of the south, made performance the natural means for political debate, social cohesion, celebration, and lament. While these types of performances may seem different from theatre, they each include the same basic elements: Africa has 54 different countries, each made up of many different cultural and ethnic groups, so there's no way to cover them all in this lesson. In addition to the troupes led by Ogunde, Ladipo, and Ogunmola, numerous other Yoruba theatre companies enjoyed great success well into the 1980s, though they were gradually overtaken by the popularity of videos for consumption at home, which diminished their audiences. Black theatre flourished during the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s and 30s. Both, however, are works of great stature. Experimental groups and Black theatre companies emerged in Chicago, New York City, and Washington, D.C. He wrote the play, Athol Fugard who produced interracial theatre that critiqued apartheid, including. Those plays variously concern themselves with the tensions and temptations of modern urban life. A Raisin in the Sun was the first play written by an African American woman to be produced on Broadway. After World War II Black theatre grew more progressive, more radical, and sometimes more militant, reflecting the ideals of Black revolution and seeking to establish a mythology and symbolism apart from white culture. Christianity, later, changed the direction once again. He has been active for many years in the International Theatre Institute. In the early 1990s, African theater has continued to develop, despite enormous economic and political difficulties. It is to rituals, dances, masquerades, storytelling and folk celebrations with all their theatrical elements, then, that one must look for such an African definition. Storytelling, dance, and ritual are three early forms of African theatrical practices. The slave trade (which developed after the European discovery of the Americas in 1492) led to internal wars in Africa for more than two centuries and wreaked havoc on African culture in innumerable ways. Revelations . During the 1980s and 90s August Wilson, Suzan-Lori Parks, and George Wolfe were among the most important creators of Black theatre. And yet it was a hit. Performed in public squares or in courtyards, the shows are done with the audience standing in a circle around the actors. A Professor at the University of Yaounde in Cameroon, he later worked for the Cameroon Ministry of Culture. Uganda, on the other hand, focused its efforts on theatre for education and development such as Rose Mbowa's play, Mother Uganda and Her Children. The minstrel shows of the early 19th century are believed by some to be the roots of Black theatre, but they initially were written by whites, acted by whites in blackface, and performed for white audiences. The reactions of white spectators who maligned the theater are especially telling. Each storyteller must use his or her charisma, vocal imitation, and often chanting and music to make the stories engaging. People want to see what the African Company is going to do. This king stood in front of a Black audience. Major plays include The Chattering and the Song (first performed 1976) and Morountodun (1982), both examples of Osofisans radical political agenda, and a play about former nationalist leader of Ghana Kwame Nkrumah in exileNkrumah-niAfrica-ni! Soyinka himself was part of a group of young playwrights who established their reputations in the years immediately before and after Nigeria gained its independence in 1960 and who are recognized as the formative creators of modern Nigerian theatre. The broad subheadings under which theatre in Africa is considered should, therefore, be seen as an aid to access rather than as representing definite boundaries. Theater, dance, music, poetry, oral literature and writing form an integral corpus that must be understood as a whole. Across the African continent, people practice very elaborate rituals that include ornate costumes and masks, music, dancing, and storytelling. French Scene in Plays Definition & History | What is a French Scene? As with ritual events, no admission is charged. In the line of social activism and the trenches of the aforementioned black theater of Athol Fugard, is Fatima Dike who earned the title of mother of South African theater. Kenya produced powerful protest theatre that criticized how newly independent governments betrayed the people and adopted colonial strategies of control and authority. Soyinka maintained a strong theatrical output from the late 1950s (with two plays, The Lion and the Jewel, first performed 1959, published 1963; and The Swamp Dwellers, 1958, partly developed when he was associated with George Devines young writers group at the Royal Court Theatre, London) well into the 21st century (with King Baabu, 2002, and Alpat pta, 2011). This need for exchange between the supplicant and the gods is expressed through offerings, sacrifices, entreaties and prayers. In this way, each human beingin conjunction with his or her ancestorsparticipates in divine creativity. When connected to representations of gods, masking also almost always inspires dance and music, elements of social integration and the most characteristic elements of cultural life on the African continent. He worked generally on a large scale, incorporating many different ethnic influences in the performance structure of his plays (in terms of song, dance, language, etc.). African Dance History, Types & Music | What is an African Dance? Omissions? His plays have been frequently staged in Nigeria and Ghana, and in Britain and the U.S. His dramaturgy is characterized by provocative open-endings, as in Once upon Four Robbers (first performed 1978), where, at the end, the audience is asked to vote on whether the armed robbers should be punished or released. To avoid a European war, however, an international conference was held in Berlin in 1884-5 in an attempt to resolve the conflicts created by Europes lust for African territory. Characteristics of Black Theater Black theater refers to plays and musicals written and performed by African Americans with the intention of portraying their experiences. Black Theater What it is, Characteristics and Examples, Shadow Theater Legacy, Characteristics and Evolution, Vaudeville Theater Characteristics, Definition, Concept, Farce Theater Characteristics, Advantages, Representatives, Monologue Theater Characteristics, Concept and Advantages, Eighteenth Century Theater Characteristics, Concepts and Development, American Theater Characteristic, Concept and Development. By 1940 Black theatre was firmly grounded in the American Negro Theater and the Negro Playwrights Company. But since there is little sense in applying the term indiscriminately, as certain studies of African theatre have tended to do, it would seem best to focus on what might be called theatre only in its relationship to the concept and definition of drama. In this sense, each of these thousands of rituals constitutes the germ of a theatrical performance in its use of mask, dance and incantation. In Opera Wonyosi (first performed 1977) he draws on Bertolt Brechts satirical musical drama The Threepenny Opera (1928). A number of other playwrights should be noted, including Martin Owusu (with The Mightier Sword, 1973, and The Sudden Return, 1973), Asiedu Yirenkyi (Kivuli, 1980; Blood and Tears, 1973), and Kwesi Kay (Hubbub in the House, 1972). Critical playwrights during this period began writing plays that would be published in book format and that could be performed on the stage. After the American Civil War, Black actors began to perform in minstrel shows (then called Ethiopian minstrelsy), and by the turn of the 20th century they were producing Black musicals, many of which were written, produced, and acted entirely by African Americans. Shakespeares Richard III arrived on a New York City stage 200 years ago this month. Sanskrit Theater History & Characteristics | Types of Sanskrit Drama, Script, Process, Product & Audience as Elements of Theatre, Theatre Audience | Role, Rules & Participation, History of Feminist Theater & Plays | Features, Principles & Examples. Later, as the buying and selling of slaves was made illegal, the climate of economic insecurity effectively destroyed both any sense of cultural continuity as well as social productivity. Whatever the historical reference, however, Rotimi draws a contemporary parallel. So, the main theater that was done in Cameroon was popular theater. It was part and parcel of the whole conception of existence, and it was also a communal activity. They include The Reign of Wazobia (1988), Tell It to Women (1994), The Missing Face (1997), Shakara: Dance-Hall Queen (2000), and Then She Said It (2002). Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Muntu ( 1975 ) and Washington, D.C and 90s August Wilson, Parks. 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